The Americans were not involved in the Napoleonic Wars, but this didn’t keep them from being abused by both the French and the British. While the European coalitions fought Napoleon Bonaparte and his Grande Armée, American ships were constantly harassed by the French and British navies, with the latter often impressing American sailors into service for the Royal Navy. Many members of Congress believed the British had gone too far and so declared war on Britain, a declaration of war signed by President James Madison.
The War of 1812 commenced, and the Americans looked to expand their territory into Canada and end foreign influence in the Americas (two other reasons for declaring war). In April of 1813, American troops invaded York (modern Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada, and forced the heavily outnumbered British and Ojibwa Indians to retreat from Fort York.
Before the British left, however, they set fire to their supplies. While rounding up prisoners near the fort, the fire finally reached the gunpowder, triggering a massive explosion that killed 200 Americans, including the commanding officer Gen. Zebulon Pike. In their fury, the soldiers retaliated by setting fire to York.
Napoleon’s Defeat, Armstrong’s Belief
Twelve months later, Napoleon abdicated due to the devastating defeat at Leipzig. The victory freed up thousands of British soldiers and sailors who were then sent to North America. As the British arrived, it was believed that they would attack either Baltimore or Washington. Oddly, Secretary of War John Armstrong firmly believed that Baltimore would be the target, despite the Royal Navy sailing up the Patuxent River, a tributary of the Chesapeake Bay, which ended much closer to the capital than the large city in Maryland.Armstrong was adamant, declaring to D.C. militia commander, Maj. Gen. John Van Ness, “By God! They would not come with such a fleet without meaning to strike somewhere. But they certainly will not come here! What the devil will they do here? No! No! Baltimore is the place, Sir. That is of so much more consequence.”
‘Remove the Records’
Secretary of State James Monroe scouted the British arrival and the direction in which they were traveling. He knew they were not heading to Baltimore. He quickly scribbled a note for a messenger to take to President Madison. “The enemy are in full march for Washington. Have the materials prepared to destroy the bridges.” He added in a postscript, “You had better remove the records.”
While residents of the capital began fleeing in droves, federal clerks, including Samuel Burch, J.T. Frost, and Lewis Machen, hustled to save as many documents and records as possible. It was hardly enough time to do so, especially due to so many of the local carriages, horses, and carts used by locals to escape.
“Everything belonging to the office, together with the Library of Congress, we venture to say, might have been removed in time, if carriages could have been procured,” Burch and Frost noted in a letter. “But it was altogether impossible to procure them, either for hire, or by force.”
John Graham, Stephen Pleasanton, and Josias King of the State Department collected as many of the most important archival pieces as they could, including treaties, laws, unpublished journals of Congress, correspondences of George Washington, the Articles of Confederation, the Bill of Rights, the Declaration of Independence, and the Constitution.
The Battle of Bladensburg
Some stayed precariously too long and were almost captured, including President Madison and Secretary Monroe. It was this week in history, on Aug. 24, 1814, that the British soldiers and officers who had recently helped defeat Napoleon strolled through Maryland, with an eye on avenging York.
The British, led by Maj. Gen. Robert Ross, quickly dispensed with the American forces at the Battle of Bladensburg, only 10 miles outside of the city. That night, the British entered the ghost town of Washington. Several American soldiers remained as long as possible, getting off a few shots, including one that killed the horse Ross was riding on. The defense of the capital, however, was practically nil.
Carrying guns, bayonets, and sabers, the soldiers were also armed with torches and gunpowder paste. They set fire to the Capitol, which housed the Library of Congress, both Houses of Congress, and the Supreme Court; the President’s House (now known as the White House); the Treasury Building; and various government buildings, including those that housed the Departments of State, War, and Navy.
The Treaty of Ghent
The War of 1812 continued until the Americans and British signed the Treaty of Ghent on Dec. 24, 1814. Before the treaty, Ross, who had led the British into Washington, was killed by a sharpshooter during the Battle of North Point on Sept. 12, 1814, just one day before the bombardment of Fort McHenry (an event that resulted in Francis Scott Key writing “The Star-Spangled Banner”).
On Jan. 8, 1815, the Battle of New Orleans―one of America’s most famous battles―was fought, as neither side had received word of the treaty signing. It resulted in a lopsided American victory and elevated Andrew Jackson to near mythical status. Five weeks later, on Feb. 16, 1815, the Treaty of Ghent was ratified. The peace for Britain, however, would not last long, as 10 days later, Napoleon escaped from exile.
Congress debated on whether to move the nation’s capital to a different and more defensible location, but most tended to agree with North Carolina Congressman Nathaniel Macon who warned, “If the seat of government is once set on wheels, there is no saying where it will stop.”
