US Politics, Science, and Daring Win the Space Race

John Glenn entering his spacecraft, Friendship 7, prior to the launch of Mercury-Atlas 6 on Feb. 20, 1962. (Public Domain)

In 1952, scientists from around the globe agreed to conduct an international effort to study the Earth, its atmosphere and poles, and its interactions with the sun in what they called the International Geophysical Year (IGY). The IGY would begin on July 1, 1957 and end Dec. 31, 1958. With America and the Soviet Union facing off in the Cold War, they would inevitably lead the charge as the IGY approached.

In 1955, construction for a cosmodrome secretly began near the city of Baikonur within the Soviet republic of Kazakhstan. Three months into the IGY and with construction finally complete, the Soviets made the first move. On Oct. 4, 1957, a metal sphere the size of a basketball and weighing 187 pounds called Sputnik 1 was attached to a rocket and launched into orbit. It was the first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth, and it did so for three months, traversing more than 43 million miles at a pace of 18,000 mph. A month after launch, a dog was placed inside Sputnik 2 and sent into orbit. The Americans, shocked into immediate action, attempted to send a satellite called Vanguard into orbit on Dec. 6, 1957. The result of the launch would be heralded by the press as “Kaputnik,” as the satellite reached about four feet into the air before its rocket’s main engine lost thrust, causing it to fall backward into a massive explosion.

A Legislative Decision

The success of Sputnik and the failure of Vanguard resulted in a more intense space race between the two countries. The United States responded with the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958, a work of legislation led by Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson. The bill was signed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on July 29, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) opened its doors on Oct. 1, 1958, nearly one year to the day of the Sputnik launch.

Preparations to launch Mercury-Redstone 1 at Cape Canaveral's Launch Complex 5, 1960. NASA. (Public Domain)

The first program initiated six days after NASA began was Project Mercury, named after the first planet closest to the sun. The program invited 110 highly qualified test pilots of which only seven were chosen. The following spring they were introduced to the public as “astronauts,” a name based on balloonists called aeronauts and the mythical Greek Argonauts.

NASA began working to build its suborbital and orbital spacecrafts, the Redstone and the Atlas, respectively. By May of 1961, NASA was ready to put its first man into space. It was no longer a race against the clock to do so, as the Soviet Yuri Gagarin was launched into space a month prior and conducted a full circle of the globe. For the Americans, the goal was suborbital, that is, at a speed lower than that required to maintain an orbit around the planet, and on May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard sat inside the Mercury-Redstone 3: Freedom 7 spacecraft and was ready for launch. After a few minor delays, the MR-3 lifted off from Cape Canaveral at 9:34 a.m. reaching a height of 116 miles before descending back to Earth. The flight lasted only 15 minutes and 28 seconds, but it was a success. The MR-3’s heat shield endured the 3,000-degree reentry, the parachutes released, and the capsule descended safely into the ocean. The Americans were finally making major headway in the international space race.

An American in Orbit

The third mission for Project Mercury had loftier goals. NASA planned for the first American to orbit the Earth. They selected John Glenn for the task.

Glenn was a decorated Marine fighter pilot from both World War II and the Korean War. In his last 15 days in Korea, he shot down three MiG fighter jets. In 1957, he set a transcontinental speed record from Los Angeles to New York City. His flight was the first transcontinental flight to average supersonic speed, which is at least 768 mph and is faster than the speed of sound.

John Glenn in his Mercury spacesuit in 1962. NASA. (Public Domain)

Glenn’s space flight was scheduled for Jan. 27. At T minus 13 minutes, the flight was canceled due to weather. After the cancellation, NASA’s team discovered a leak in the fuel tank’s bulkhead. The repair took nearly a week. The flight was scheduled for Feb. 14, 15, and 16, but each flight was canceled due to weather. Finally, the weather cleared, and Glenn strapped into the Mercury-Atlas 6: Friendship 7 spacecraft. It was during this week in history, on Feb. 20, 1962, at T plus 4 seconds at 9:47 a.m. that MA-6 lifted off into space. Glenn orbited the Earth three times in less than five hours at a speed of more than 17,000 mph.

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Before reentry, there was concern that the heat shield was loose. If the heat shield came off during reentry, Glenn and the capsule would incinerate. Upon reentry, Glenn noticed parts flying past his window shield, but the heat shield held, and the astronaut landed safely in the ocean.

A President’s Request

Before Glenn’s orbit and only a few weeks after Shepard’s historic launch, President John F. Kennedy stood before Congress and stated, “I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish.”

Seven months after Glenn’s orbit around Earth, Kennedy reiterated the ultimate goal in Houston before a crowd gathered at Rice University, famously stating, “We choose to go to the moon ... in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy but because they are hard.”

President John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University on Sept. 12, 1962. (Public Domain)

Although Kennedy was assassinated the following year, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, who had played such a significant role in getting NASA off the ground, was sworn in as president, and he would continue to push for Kennedy’s moon-landing vision.

Finding a Landing

NASA decided the best way to get to the moon was to find the best place to land. To discover prime locations, NASA began its Ranger Program, and used nine unmanned spacecraft that ranged from 675 to 809 pounds. The first six Ranger missions either failed during takeoff, missed the moon, or only accomplished a portion of its tasks. The Ranger 7, which launched on July 28, 1964, had more success than the previous six. Through its television system, it was able to relay more than 4,300 images back to NASA. The next mission, however, would have the most impact―literally and figuratively.

After launching on Feb. 17, 1965, and reaching the moon, Ranger 8 transmitted 7,300 high resolution images. During this week in history as well, on Feb. 20, 1965, exactly three years after Glenn’s flight, Ranger 8 conducted its planned crash landing into the moon after transmitting its images. NASA officially had its location for the moon landing. Ranger 8 had marked the spot: Mare Tranquillitatis (or more commonly known as the Sea of Tranquility).

Less than five years later and before the decade was out, on July 20, 1969, the astronauts of Apollo 11 became the first humans to land and walk on the moon.

The Apollo 11 lunar landing mission crew: (L–R) Neil A. Armstrong, commander; Michael Collins, command module pilot; and Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., lunar module pilot. (Public Domain)

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