Some may know Herodotus of Halicarnassus as “the world’s first historian.” Fewer realize that the man credited with inventing history was a traveling bard and a gifted one.
Although he didn’t always stick to the facts, Herodotus (484 B.C.–425 B.C.) devoted his life to studying the past with care, reminding countless generations after him that history matters.
Herodotus of Halicarnassus
Halicarnassus, now called Bodrum, is in modern-day Turkey. When Herodotus was born, the Persian Empire controlled the Greek-speaking city. Herodotus’s family was wealthy and influential, certainly more than the average Halicarnassian. He was related to the revered epic poet Panyassis, who in 454 B.C. led an uprising against Halicarnassus’s despot.
Though Herodotus lived almost 2,000 years before Bodrum Castle was built, the area was already inhabited by thousands, who called their thriving metropolis Halicarnassus. Serhio Magpie/CC BY 4.0
A Byzantine encyclopedia from the 10th century suggests that Herodotus returned home after several years of self-imposed exile, took over the uprising after Panyassis was executed, and overthrew the tyrant. It’s the only account that portrays Herodotus as his city’s liberator. It’s more likely that he used the tyranny as a pretext to leave home and voyage across the Mediterranean.
Herodotus was indeed well-traveled. He loved Egypt and visited it at least once on a diplomatic trip with Athenians who had helped Halicarnassus repel a Persian naval attack. He also visited Tyre, in modern-day Lebanon, one of the world’s oldest continuously inhabited cities, and Babylon, home to the ancient King Hammurabi and source of one of the earliest written legal codes.
As he traveled far and wide, Herodotus gathered thousands of stories. He heard some from locals, and some he witnessed. Although he eventually wrote down many of the stories he had heard, he first made them known through oral recitations. Like virtually every other civilization at this time, Greece was primarily an oral culture.
Solon, one of Athens’ first democratic lawgivers, composed and performed poetry to advance his political platform. Even the first philosophers showcased their arguments about the nature of things in poems they often delivered publicly.
Solon was a renowned Athenian speaker in his day, as depicted in this 1907 illustration by Paul Woodroffe. Public Domain
The ancient Syrian writer Lucian tells of how Herodotus made frequent trips to Corinth, Sparta, Argos, and many other cities in the Greek peninsula to share his stories. His status in the cities that hosted him depended on his public performances. Herodotus needed to entertain. Speculation about the Nile’s frequent floods probably wasn’t as interesting as war, conquest, abduction, and other exciting themes. Much like a street performer today, Herodotus set up camp in public spaces and delivered extemporaneous speeches about his most exciting stories with enough charisma to gain a reputation around Greece.
But Herodotus eventually grew tired of frequent travel. When he was 37, he settled in Athens. Around 440 B.C., the Athenian golden age was at its peak. Statesmen like Pericles were strengthening Athens’ world-shaping democracy with radical reforms. Philosophers like Socrates were asking questions about virtue and the nature of reality that forever changed the West. All the while, Athens expanded its hegemony in the Mediterranean with a mighty fleet.
Eager for fame, the traveling historian decided to make a grand appearance at the Olympic Games. According to Lucian,
“He waited for a packed audience to assemble, one containing the most eminent men from all Greece; he appeared in the temple chamber, presenting himself as a competitor for an Olympic honour, not as a spectator; then he recited his Histories and so bewitched his audience.”
His performance was so captivating that he became “much better known than the Olympic victors themselves.”
"Throwing the Discus," 1875, by Edouard-Joseph Dantan. Oil on canvas; 45 1/2 inches by 84 inches. Public Domain
Was glory Herodotus’s only reason for writing his “Histories”? If oral performances were enough to become famous, why write at all?
Why Herodotus Wrote History
The modern notion of history as a collection of information about the past was foreign to the 5th century B.C. People shared myths in temples, theaters, and markets. But ancient tales almost always featured divine characters or mythical figures like Hector and Achilles. Everyday people weren’t part of history. Their mundane lives went largely unnoticed, unless they committed patricide, sacrilegious vandalism, or something equally outrageous.Herodotus was not a “people’s historian,” but he was more interested in life’s mundane aspects than his predecessors and contemporaries. The “Histories” opens with a statement of purpose:
“To prevent the traces of human events from being erased by time, and to preserve the fame of the important and remarkable achievements produced by both Greeks and non-Greeks; among the matters covered is, in particular, the cause of the hostilities between Greeks and non-Greeks.”
Famous ancient battles between the Greeks and Persians are memorialized in art and literature. “The Heroes of Marathon,” 1911, by Georges Antoine Rochegrosse. Public Domain
Reciting his accounts wasn’t enough to ensure their survival. Herodotus wrote them down to prevent time from erasing “the traces of human events.” While he wrote “Histories,” Greek city states were fighting in coalitions against the Persian Empire, which wanted to colonize them.
His main aim was to know the reasons behind these conflicts. Why did the Greeks and the Persians go to war? Who started the conflict, and how? Understanding the conditions that led to war might prevent them from arising again in the future.
Although he was particularly attracted to exceptional generals and statesmen and once-in-a-lifetime accomplishments, he was also interested in writing about the working class, non-Greeks, women, and other underrepresented groups, moving back and forth between accounts of the past and descriptions of current customs and beliefs. The rationale was the same: to preserve as many interesting details about Greeks and non-Greeks as possible, so others could look to the past as a source of insight, caution, and inspiration.
But how much could his accounts be trusted?
Myths, Lies, and Propaganda?
The Roman orator and statesman Cicero was the first to describe Herodotus as “the father of history.” Cicero thought history was judged on “the truth, while in poetry it is generally the pleasure one gives” that determines its value.Although he admired the historian’s inventive style, Cicero acknowledged that his reports were full of “fabulous tales.” Herodotus cared about the truth, but he also wanted to entertain his audiences. To do so, he happily sprinkled his reports with sensational details.
Orpheus rescues his love Eurydice from Hades, but loses her a second time. “Orpheus and Eurydice” by Gaetano Gandolfi. Public Domain
His tales resemble other stories from Greek mythology, like Hercules’s 12 feats and Orpheus’s attempted rescue of Eurydice. Herodotus speaks of the Argippaeans, a mysterious pacifist people “who are said to be all bald from their birth (male and female alike),” and of a tribe of “one-eyed men” who often battle “griffins that guard gold.”
He describes the legendary phoenix, known for its ability to come back to life from its own ashes, as a real creature, and mentions equally anomalous creatures without skepticism. These bizarre anecdotes would be most exciting for a live audience, but they’re very likely untrue.
Writing around the time of Herodotus’s death, the Greek comedian Aristophanes made fun of this peculiar blend of history and myth. His comedy “Acharnians” tells of an Athenian citizen who tries to end war by declaring a private peace in his house. He blames the war on the abduction of three prostitutes. The tone is sarcastic, and the audience would’ve easily caught the reference to Herodotus.
In the first of his nine books, Herodotus blamed a series of large-scale conflicts on the abduction of important women. This trope was popular in ancient Greece, but it was also absurd enough as an explanation of war for a shrewd playwright like Aristophanes to make Herodotus the butt of his joke.
In addition to glamorous tales, Herodotus was also accused of showing partiality towards Athens. He portrayed the Athenians as the morally righteous champions of freedom and democracy and the Persians as the evil perpetrators of slavery and injustice, leaving little room for nuance.
Title page of a 1533 translated copy of Herodotus's "Histories," at Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Public Domain
It’s an understandable bias, since Herodotus was directly affected by the Persians’ war-mongering. But it undermines his credibility, especially when read alongside his preposterous tales.
The Beauty of Facts and Fantasy
Although historians today generally view Herodotus as a reliable source, they share Cicero and Aristophanes’s suspicions. If Herodotus taught at a modern university, he’d probably be a creative writing professor or an instructor in theater and performance. He certainly wouldn’t be in a history department.His historical method was quickly superseded by Thucydides, a younger contemporary who wrote the “History of the Peloponnesian War.” Thucydides was much less interested in myths and ordinary individuals. He thought history should focus on powerful men and their notable accomplishments. Yet Thucydides owed a great deal to Herodotus, who was one of the first people to study the past systematically, for the sake of the present and posterity.
Propaganda comes from good storytelling, but so do awe and wonder. Although Herodotus didn’t always stick to the facts, he devoted his life to learning about people, places, and events with exemplary care. His original combination of storytelling and factual reports makes the “Histories” an intriguing and enjoyable text. It has reminded countless generations about the importance of understanding the origins of things, and the beauty of doing so with facts and fantasy.
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